Population
Total People: 1,675,000 (1988, Ethnologue)
Urban Percent: 40% (est.)

General Description
The Toucouleur are a Negroid Muslim people, one of the Fula/Fulani groups, but with a clearly distinct identity. Although there is insufficient evidence as to which peoples they are descended from, it is undeniable that they have, in some way, their roots in the Fula race whose own origin is still being researched.
It seems likely that the nomadic, cattle-raising Fulas emigrated from Ethiopia, or an area adjacent to it, and in their search for pastures and water for their animals eventually arrived on the northern borders of Senegal in the 10th century. Apparently then, and for a long time after, the whole area was a melting pot of people-groups. There would have been much intermarriage.
While the exact ethnic origins of the Toucouleur are hard to determine, it is quite certain that they are descendants in some way of the ancient rules of the Tekrur Empire.
Another popular explanation is that the Toucouleur are a cultural mix of the ethnic groups that used to inhabit the northern regions incorporated in the Tekrur Empire. Notably these ethnic influences include the Sereres, the Maures and the Bedouins, Soninkes and nomadic Fulani herders.
In medieval times, parts of Senegal belonged to the empires of Mali, Ghana and Songhai. It is here, in the middle 16th century, that the Futa Toro State was established. At that time the Toucouleur had to withstand the attacks of the Berber groups that were forced south by the Arabs, infiltrating the area and mixing with the black people.
The Toucouleur dominate this area from the early 18th century and through a protracted, violent revolt (1852-1864) set up the Segu Tekrour empire, which endured a turbulent reign in the Western Sahara, until the conquest by the French in 1893.
From the name of the empire in this region, Tekrour, it is thought that the French derive the name Toucouleur. The name Toucouleur has nothing to do with "all colours" or "two colours", as some English speakers have thought. Arab geographers called the Toucouleur (Takarir) inhabitants of the Kingdom of Tekrur.
During the colonial era, Senegal came initially under French control. It was then ceded to Britain in 1763 as part of the settlement of the Seven Years War (over North American territories) but returned to the French in 1817.
After the fall of the Toucouleur empire the West African territories were subdivided into governable regions by the various imperialist powers in the Western Sahara, predominantly the French.
To the middle of the 1900s with colonialism at its low point, territories and protectorates throughout started gaining independence. Subsequently Guinea gained independence from France in 1958; and Senegal, Mauritania, Burkina Faso and Mali followed suit in 1960.
From 1959-60 Senegal was briefly part of the Federation of Mali. A sudden and drastic deterioration of relations between Senegal and Mauritania occurred in 1989. Long-standing ethnic and economic rivalries between the two countries exploded into violence in April 1989.
These tensions go back a long way but intensified and flared-up over land issues, as more arable land became available with the completion of dams in the Senegal River.
Traditionally Toucouleur have always had ground and villages on both sides of the Senegal River, especially in the higher up-river parts, i.e. the Futa region.
When Mauritanian herdsman crossed into Senegal and trampled fields with their herds, clashes erupted between the farmers and the herdsman. In the ensuing incident two of the herdsman were shot and killed.
This resulted in a counter-reaction: In Mauritania bloody clashes followed between the Maures (who control both the army and the government) and the Black African minorities (mainly Toucouleur and Soninke).
Black Africans were chased out of Mauritania, or fled for their lives as the Maures turned on them in vengeance - not only from the villages in the river area, but from wherever they were found in Mauritania.
Especially in Nouakchott, the capital and in Nouadhibou (ex-Port Etienne) reprisals were severe. Many people were unable to get away and were murdered.
The Mauritanian government stripped 200,000 blacks of their property and forced them into exile in Senegal.
The Senegalese government in turn repatriated 130,000 Mauritanians and in various Senegalese towns violence also occurred against Mauritanian Maures.
Since then quite a few Toucouleur and Pulaar have been living with other refugees in encampments on the bank of the Senegal River on the Senegalese side. Officially the dispute was settled in May 1992 and diplomatic relations restored. A solution is being sought to repatriate and give indemnity to the Toucouleur that were forced into exile but as yet the Toucouleur are still waiting for resettlement. Whatever the solution, the Toucouleur might be wary to return to Mauritania especially in view of the fact that they were so cruelly stripped of their land and livelihood.
To date not much has changed with the situation, and refugees have started to settle on a semi-permanent basis, eking out as much of a living as they can. The situation is not resolved and matters of citizenship and ID documents remain daily problems on both sides of the river.
Despite official denials and actions, Senegalese in Mauritania are constantly treated in a harsh and prejudice way.

Economics
GNP per capita: Unknown
Occupations: Tradesmen, Fisherman, Farmers - both field-crops and cattle.
Income sources: Income for many is mainly from livestock and agricultural produce.
Products: Surplus agricultural products and trades such as leatherwork, wood work, pottery, weaving, boat-building, black smiting and silver smiting.
Trade Partners: Neighbouring Senegalese and Mauritanian peoples

Living Conditions/Community Development Status
Food: The Toucouleur diet is very basic consisting largely of rice, which in the last decade has actually become the Senegalese staple diet. The Senegalese in general and the Toucouleur as well do not vary their diet or change the presentation of meals. This is probably due in some extent to a lack of means, but largely however to the fact that people do not like culinary change and don't care for anything new or different. The favourite dish is rice and fish - called "Tiéboudienne". This is often served with some pieces of vegetable. The staple in the Futa used to be Cousecous, a millet meal based dish. The dish that is considered to be the traditional dish of the Toucouleur, is Couscous served with a souse made from the green leaves of the peanut plant or the sweet-potato plant. This is called "Thiére et Hakkou". Other foods include vegetables in small quantities, sorghum, wheat, corn on the cob, dates, beans, barley, different melons, yams and peanuts. Meat is also freely available - mostly mutton and goat meat, although beef is found in the markets from time to time. Through trade with neighbouring Peul, the Toucouleur have access to milk which they mostly use in curdled form. Fruit is available according to season. The most common fruit being melons, mangoes and tangerines in season.
Shelter: Traditionally the Toucouleur lived in thatched mud dwellings, grouped together in villages governed by elders. The villages are usually very neat and tidy despite harsh living conditions. Towns are however, a horribly dirty different story. In larger towns thatched roofs are replaced by tin roofs. Constructions are generally of mud bricks that are plastered over with mud or cement. Cement has the advantage that it does not have to be redone every year like the mud plastering. More and more people are adopting building with cement bricks instead of the traditional mud bricks.
Clothing: The style of dress has been largely influenced by Arabic/Muslim tradition, but also reflects a certain practicality concerning the climate. Clothes are made from lightweight (often semi-transparent) materials to allow air to circulate, to keep cool. The general everyday dress tends to be in muted colours - earthy browns and greys, then some blacks, blues and greens as well. Fancy occasions however bring out the best in the closet. Then the dress style is brightly coloured, extravagant and richly embroidered in gold thread. Women and men alike will also wear their best jewellery - mostly gold chains, rings, earrings and bangles - on such occasions. Men generally wear large long flowing mantels known as '3 piece or 2 piece Booboos', with turbans or Islamic style 'Fez' skullcaps. Women generally wear large long flowing dresses, also called Booboos, with wrap-around skirts beneath, and scarves as head-dress (worn in turban style). Another form of 'dress' worn by both men and women is a basic drop-over long poncho style outfit made from one drop of material that falls to the knee or the ankles. The length of cloth is simply folded in half, a neck hole cut in, and rimmed around with embroidery. Sometimes the long sides will be stitched together, but that is rare. Below this a loose fitting, Pilasso-style trousers is worn by the men and a wrap-around skirt by the women.
Health care: Nouakchott, the Mauritanian capital, has one government-run hospital, consultations are free. Medicines are plentiful but expensive. Several other cities have hospitals too, and smaller towns have dispensaries. It is probable that traditional health care methods, including occult means, will be used alongside or above modern medication. Along the Senegal River there are many diseases, in particular amoebic dysentery, Bilharzia and the Guinea worm. In Senegal a number of medical facilities exist, but the conditions are horrendous due to mismanagement, corruption, theft and gross neglect. Concerning the Futa region, there are Hospitals in St. Louis, Ndjoum and Matam. In most other larger towns one finds clinics or dispensaries. There are also pharmacies and medical aid posts - like first aid posts in most towns. In smaller villages there is usually a healthcare worker that occupies a 'health-hut' during certain times of the week. The government has in recent years also invested in the training of birth assistants. In many small villages in out lying regions these 'midwives' are the only sources of medical knowledge around. In regions or towns where there is a military presence, often the military doctors and medics also do consultations and prescriptions. However, despite the availability of modern medicines, people are most likely first to employ traditional healing potions, then to consult spiritual and religious (occult) healers for magic potions, and finally, often when it is already to late, they will go to a medical facility. Because of this and the appauling conditions at certain medical facilities, locals often call these facilities that should be places of healing, 'places where people go to die'. Research on facilities in Mali needs to be done.
Water supplies: Water is available from the Senegal River in the river basin, but is unlikely to be suitable for domestic use because of Bilharzia. It is estimated by WHO research that in certain areas of the river regions as many as 80% of the population is infected by Bilharzia. In the outlying regions of the Jeeri water is scarcer, and arable land valuable and much sought after - especially as one moves north. Several governments in conjunction with Arab help concluded a project on the Senegal River in 1981 to provide irrigation and ultimately hydroelectric power to most of the region. Two dams were to be built: The first, the Manantali dam in Mali (completed 1980), was to help regulate the river flow and prevent flooding. The second dam, the Makadiama dam, was to be constructed in the river delta region in Senegal, to stop seawater seepage upstream in the dry season, and to help increase irrigation in the lower regions of the river. This second dam will probably never be constructed. In most towns and larger villages water is available. Water reservoir, wells and boreholes have been constructed almost on a willy-nilly basis in some regions, due to the lack of co-operation between NGO, government and semi-government development projects. Help is available for people in need, but often people choose to use the river because they don't have to pay for the water. Even in some towns one finds houses side by side - one with electricity and running water (and some even with flush-toilets), and the other without, simply because people do not want to pay for what they consider to be free inexhaustible resources.
Energy/Fuel/Electricity: The wood cut for making charcoal for the traditional charcoal fires creates the problem of denuding the surrounding areas of vegetation. Charcoal is not just made for personal use, but also for trade, to sell at great profit in the cities. In most of Senegal electricity is available, but in many villages people do not want power because they don't want to pay the bills.

Society
Cultural Identity: There are estimated to be about 1.5 million Toucouleur in the world today. About 900,000 are living in Senegal, 180,000 in Mauritania, and thousands more through out West Africa. As many as 20,000 Toucouleur are speculated to be living in France, and possibly as many as 130,000 Pulaar speakers throughout other European countries. Popular European destinations include France, Spain, Germany and Italy. Often expatriates form a very important part of the economical infrastructure of the Futa Tooro region, in that they regularly send money home to the family in Senegal. The Toucouleur are mostly sedentary crop farmers, but there are also merchants, government officials and intellectuals amongst them.
Neighbour relations: Near neighbours are the Wolof, Fula, Serer, Kasonke and Soninke in and around the Senegal River valley. There is some competition with the surrounding groups for land. There exist much racial tensions between the Toucouleur and the white Maures in Mauritania.
Rule/Authority/Selection: Authority and power is in the hands of the elders and the men in general; Transitory and Spiritual authority and power are in the hands of the upper cast, the Tooroobe. Toucouleur always group themselves around a Chief or leader (of a village, suburb, town, region, etc.), and Elders govern villages. High status is attached to membership in a noble lineage or a prosperous family. Leadership in the three major Muslim brotherhoods (Mouride, Tidjani, Quadiri) has recently assumed importance in status rankings as well.
Social Grouings: The organisation of the Toucouleur society revolves around two main forces - the clan, and the caste system. Of these, the largest form of association and relationship is the clan, subdivided into lineage groups - a sort of extended family. Toucouleur always group themselves around a Chief or leader (of a suburb, town, region, etc.). The Toucouleur maintain and follow a patriarchal social structure. Community life is highly stratified into a hierarchy of 12 casts, grouped into 3 or 4 social classes. The first and highest class comprises the chiefs and religious leaders. Most Toucouleur are members of this Tooroobe class. The value of an individual is determined by his cast and not by his riches, fame or any other position in life. Relationships are of primary importance but social connections are formed on the horizontal within a social class and marriages by example, are never contracted across class lines.In the caste system, the castes are characterised by hereditary, endogamy and/or professional specialisation. They constitute closed groups and maintain relationships with one another on a hierarchical basis. Social relations, especially questions of domination and subordination are defined essentially by the castes to which people belong. Membership to a caste is permanent according to your birth irrespective of your achievements. Most Toucouleur of the upper class are very set on caste distinctions. Social mobility in the traditional Toucouleur milieu is non-existent except that slaves become free after the third generation.
Casts: There are 12 distinctive castes in Toucouleur society. Within the cast system the Toucouleur society is subdivided into 4 main social strata, each permitted to own slaves. (Legally there are no slaves anymore, but in practice there are those who are kept as slaves, although it is believed they are generally well treated.) First are the elite "torroobe", who are traditionally concerned with the learning and propagation of Islam. This aristocratic class emerged when the first Tukulor "almami", Suleyman Ball, established the "almamyat" of Tekrur in Futa Toro in 1778.The middle class, "rimb" (which means pure or free), comprise the following: The "subalb", who hold and manage the fishing industry along the river; The "sebb", farmers who, because of the seasonal nature of agriculture, comprise a martial establishment during slack periods and are often referred to as the warriors; The "dyawamb", who are administrators or courtiers and middlemen or tradesmen. The lower middle class includes the "nyenb", skilled craftsmen and storytellers (Griots in French), musicians and artists. The lower class is made up of servants and the manual unskilled labourers, which includes the "gallunkob" or slaves. Slaves are called "gallunkobe". Legally there are no slaves anymore, but in practice there are those who are kept as slaves (especially in Mauritania), although it is believed they are generally well treated.
Family Structure: The social structure is highly stratified and is based primarily on male lineage groups, which are usually scattered among several villages. Each clan embraces all that trace their descent to a common ancestry. Within the clan members owe one another social obligations and responsibilities. Members of a clan group usually occupy the same area and traditionally defend their area against other clans. The head of each clan is often also a big "feudal lord" with considerable political powers. Over the centuries the clans acquired a measure of autonomy, which was particularly pronounced during the time of the empire, and the Futa Toro became a loose federation of such groups.Under the influence of Islam the Toucouleur gradually changed from matrilineal to paternally structured society. An example of this is that the wife would come to live at the village of her father-in-law. The typical household comprises father, his sons and grandchildren, their wives, children and sometimes more distant kin. Although the Toucouleur are generally polygamous, only about 20% of men have more than one wife. Wives cohabit in the same house, or each lives separately according to circumstances. The husband in fact moves around from place to place, even in the same compound.Each wife lives with and takes care of her children. Often women continue to live with their parents and received visits from their husbands, who lives with another wife, or even with his parents. Marriages are preferred between cousins or in the larger family circle, but always within the same social class. At the present time divorce is rife. On average most women will re-marry 4 times in their lives. This familial instability has a profound affect on women, and these effects are clear to see in their comportment. Toucouleur social life displays a mosaic of indigenous and Islamic elements associated in complex and often poorly integrated combinations. Thus for example, wives, upon the death of their husbands, are returned to their respective families, while those with grown children who refuse to leave the conjugal compound come under the authority of the eldest son. He may give women in the compound, including his own mother, in marriage. Yet despite the paternal system, the relationship between maternal uncle and nephew are as strong as in pre-Islamic times. Indeed, the Toucouleur teach their children that on the day of resurrection they will be recognised not by their own mother or father, but by their maternal uncle. The clans, or "woda", continue to be a socio-political institution, honouring particular totem - primarily a taboo.
Art Forms: Poetry is very important, and is incorporated in the traditional use language among the older generation. Dance also has a prominent place in Toucouleur social interaction. Traditional dance varies from region to region, but is generally accompanied by traditional drumming. Most celebrations incorporate some for of dancing. The younger generation in the true following of this age regularly arranges evenings of dance, where the music style is dominated by American type rap, and modern African jazz-style music. Storytelling is also a very important art and communication form. Storytellers are paid for their services and perform such divers stories as the recounting of history and folklore, to the 'praise-singing' of dignitaries or events. Storytellers are a must at a wedding feast, and depending on the status of a family many might be hired for the occasion.
Recreation: The main forms of recreation consist of socialising by visiting and chatting around the traditional tea, dancing and storytelling. In recent times it has become popular to arrange social evenings of debate over tea, as well as socio-cultural evenings where traditions and folklore is recounted and discussed. The most important sports in the region are Football and West African wrestling. This form of hand to hand combat differs from Greco-Roman wrestling in that kicking and punching are allowed. The loser is the first one to hit the ground or have both feet of the ground. No other known traditional sports apart from wrestling exist.
Self Image: The Toucouleur are a very proud people. Their ancient heritage as rulers and leaders is still evident today. They like to think of themselves as intellectuals and are know as religious leaders, many Marabouts being Toucouleur or from Toucouleur origins. It is often said that being born Toucouleur is being born Muslim. Islam is the very fibre of Toucouleur culture and thus, to be Toucouleur is to be Muslim. The Toucouleur are Muslims at heart, and Islam is a cultural value that permeates all things regarding Toucouleur society. Toucouleur Marrabouts, holy-men and Islamic scholars are renowned throughout the West African region. The ancient Toucouleur leaders and intellectuals of the Tekrur Empire were of the first black Africans to take on the Islamic faith. And subsequently through Jihad (holy war), Toucouleur warriors spread Islam to large parts of the sub-region. To this day the Toucouleur consider themselves the "Defenders of the Faith".
Judicial system/Trial punishment: In Mauritania in 1980 Islamic law was introduced and an Islamic court established. In Senegal, a secular democratic state granting freedom of religion and association, much of the French legal system is evident and the principles of the western law and legal systems are respected.
Media (Radio/TV/Newspapers/Films/Videos/Recordings): Radio seems to be the most widely used form of media communication in West Africa. More people are however becoming TV owners - even amongst the Toucouleur in the smallest of villages.

Children/Youth
Education/Type of Schooling: Education in this region is not considered compulsory. School attendance is more frequent among boys than among girls.
Greatest needs: Prenatal care and primary health care are great needs as can been seen from the Infant mortality rate for children up to one year of age: 126 deaths per 1,000 (Mauritania 1988)
Problems: The increasing numbers of young people migrating to the towns is impacting traditional family life and disrupting the family structure. The young people are normally employed as agricultural labour but the growing population and unequal land distribution has meant there is no work for many, hence the migration to urban centres. With unemployment in Senegal around 40% many young people just hang around doing nothing. They live in their family compound but make no contribution to productivity. Because of boredom, young people take to smoking and drinking. Ambition is low, and discipline is non-existent. Many young girls turn to prostitution at a very early age (some as young as 13 years), bartering "favours" for material things like clothes, jewellery, alcohol and cigarettes. The incidence of pregnancy out of wedlock is a common occurrence.

Religion
Primary Religion: Islam/Folk Islam
Practices/ceremonies: Standard Muslim ceremonies and practices are kept, but the real spiritual life is the occults spiritism involving sorcery, magic, charms, etc. often performed by the Muslim holy men who double as witchdoctors.
Redemptive analogies: Specific key analogies are unknown and probably non-existent. Apart from the apparent similarities between Christianity and Islam, these type of keys would be highly specific to a region, a time and circumstances. More research in the field is needed.
Spiritual climate: Islam came to the Toucouleur in the eleventh century with the conversion of the ruling class. The common people followed during the next few centuries and today nearly all Toucouleur are Muslims. Islam is strongly entrenched and yet, at heart, many of the people are animistic in their true beliefs; they fear evil spirits, wear charms - leather pouches attached to the upper arm or around the neck or waist, in which are sewn pieces of paper bearing verses from the Koran. Certain actions are tabooed to avoid offending the spirits. The Toucouleur are very proud of their Islamic heritage - of being the first West African group to embrace Islam and this may be a barrier to the Gospel. They belong to the strict Tijaniya Brotherhood and have been hard to evangelise due to the strong Islamic influences in every area of their lives. Some of the most famous Marabouts (Muslim teachers) originate from the Podor area of the Senegal River Valley. However, their involvement with the supernatural realm makes a "Power Encounter" a likely way of demonstrating the Gospel.
Traditional beliefs: Traditional beliefs in the nature of man and his destiny after death play a significant role in the Toucouleur outlook on life; the animistic stratum in which they are imbedded is tenacious. The impersonal vital force, "fittandu", is upon death absorbed into deity, while the shadow soul, "belu", is the personal spirit, subject to reward in heaven or punishment in hell. The distinction between these two spirits, however, is not as clear as might be expected, and they are often confused.
Folk Islam: Islam has brought no significant change in psychological attitudes toward magic. Supernatural power, or "baraka", may be possessed by a renowned cleric, or it may simply emanate from him, reflecting a strong Berber Islamic influence. In the Senegal River Valley the fabrication and sale of charms and amulets are the preserve of Toucouleur clerics: Witchcraft persists in spite of Islam. In the Futas each village has its own recognised witch family. Toucouleur believe that the witch substance is inherited through women, but that it does not necessarily affect all the children. The people also make uninhibited use of exorcists who may also act as herbalists and rainmakers. Divination flourishes with people more concerned about the diviner's power than with Islamic prescription; in fact, in most cases, the diviner is a Muslim cleric.
Marabouts: The spiritual authority centres in the "Marabouts" - the religious leaders and teachers. It is through these men that Satan controls the lives of the people. From the cradle to the grave, a person lives under the shadow of the Marabout. Whether for giving a name at birth, for education, for celebrating a marriage, for burial, for healing or cursing, the Marabout is ever present. Toucouleur differentiate among their clergy according to whether they lead prayer, teach, specialise in the study and interpretation of the canon law, or head a parish. The common word for a cleric is "midibbo", the teacher is the "tyerno", while the jurist and the high priest is the "fodyo". The parish head, often also the chief administrative officer in a village, is called "almami".
The Brotherhoods: In the past the Toucouleur have been associated with various Sufi "tariqas" (brotherhoods). Early in the 19th century the Shadhiliya was introduced among them by a Fulani cleric, Ali As-Sufi, but they ultimately adopted the Tijaniya upon the rise of Al-Hajj Umar. Practices, tendencies, and devotion vary greatly within this "tariqa", depending on the training of the clerics.

History of Christian Presence Amongst This People Group
In the first centuries AD there was a North African church, where some of our well known church fathers came from. Missions started again around 1880 with the Algiers Mission Band and North Africa Mission.

Current Church Development
Christians: <1,000
Scriptures available: Bible in Standard Arabic and French for the literate. Portions in Algerian Arabic on audio and video cassettes.
Other Literary Resources: No
Christian Radio: TWR, IBRA, ELWA and others.
Videos: The Jesus film (1999-2000)
Satellite Media: This is a growing means of communication in this area of this world.
Response to Christians: Open to dialogue about spiritual issues. Many associate Christian with Europe and other ‘Western’ countries, which are perceived to have loose morals.
Receptivity: Varying responses. Receptivity is growing.

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